Strategi Forex, strategi sederhana, strategi perdagangan valas, strategi trading valuta asing forex trading selama 5 menit: Merekomendasikan perdagangan untuk strategi ini pada pasangan mata uang EURUSD dan GBPUSD, namun tidak lebih dari 3 transaksi komersial per hari. Jadi, dalam grafik harga 5 menit: 1) Indikator 50 Rata-rata Bergerak Sederhana (SMA 50) 2) Indikator 21 Exponential Moving Average (EMA 21) 3) 10 Exponential Moving Average (EMA 10) Masuk ke pasar: Posisi trading terbuka segera setelah sudut SMA dengan jangka waktu 50 melebihi 20 derajat (lihat grafik nomor 1), dan harga kembali 8212 daerah antara EMA dengan jangka waktu 21 dan EMA dengan jangka waktu 10. Dengan Contoh 8212 Gambar 1, kita buka kesepakatan untuk menjual kemiringan SMA 50. Set SL (6 pips spread) dan TP (8-10 pip). Bila pada posisi perdagangan Anda akan memiliki 6 pips, segeralah transfer SL ke breakeven (untuk ini sama sekali tidak menggantikan trailing stop dalam perjalanan). Hanya beberapa contoh: Deskripsi Umum Semua makhluk hidup membutuhkan enzim untuk mempertahankan kehidupan. Tubuh bergantung pada enzim untuk membantu memurnikan darah, memecah lemak, membersihkan usus besar, mempertahankan kadar kolesterol yang tepat dan mempertahankan tingkat energi puncak. Enzim makanan bukanlah sesuatu yang baru, namun sudah diketahui keberadaannya sejak zaman Hippocrates. Sudah lama diketahui bahwa penyakit berhubungan dengan diet yang tidak benar dan nutrisi yang tidak adekuat dan bahwa puasa, jus, dan makanan yang kaya akan ramuan herbal dan makanan mentah membantu memulihkan kesehatan tubuh. Makanan tradisional dan makanan etnis dengan ramuan herbal adalah aturan sebelum diperkenalkannya makanan olahan modern. Salah satu populasi terpanjang di bumi, Hunz, terutama bertahan dalam makanan mentah, diet berlimpah dengan enzim. Enzim bekerja dalam rentang suhu dan pH yang berbeda, tergantung pada jenis dan fungsinya dan mudah dihancurkan dengan memasak, termasuk oven microwave. Pekerjaan yang dilakukan di Eropa dengan diet makanan mentah menunjukkan bahwa pasien dengan penyakit degeneratif yang sudah lama dapat menghasilkan pemulihan yang luar biasa, dan Institut Kesehatan Nasional baru-baru ini mengeluarkan sebuah studi yang menunjukkan bahwa mengonsumsi makanan yang lebih kecil akan menghasilkan umur yang lebih lama. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa produksi enzim intrinsik kita lebih mampu menjaga beban makanan yang lebih kecil daripada asupan makanan yang lebih besar. Enzim Apa Enzim adalah molekul protein kompleks yang ditemukan di setiap sel di tubuh Anda. Enzim bisa menjadi aktif, dan mampu melakukan tugas tertentu seperti, produksi energi atau pertukaran oksigen, dan karbon dioksida, saat kita bernafas. Mereka mampu mentransfer energi ke molekul lain, sehingga memudahkan mereka diproduksi, dan dimanfaatkan oleh tubuh, menciptakan efek domino, dan karena itu, mempercepat semua fungsi tubuh. Tubuh kita mengandung 1.300 enzim berbeda yang memecah nutrisi, membangun kembali sel, dan menyebabkan tubuh berfungsi bebas penyakit. Sistem pencernaan mengubah makanan menjadi energi untuk penggunaan bodys dengan memecah protein, lemak, dan karbohidrat kompleks menjadi bentuk yang lebih kecil, sederhana, dan lebih bermanfaat. Tanpa transformasi ini, pencernaan dan asimilasi nutrisi sulit dilakukan. Kesehatan Anda lebih banyak overtaxed, dan disalahgunakan oleh ekses makanan olahan, dan stimulan: tepung terigu, susu, dan, kafein, minuman ringan, gula, dan alkohol. Pencernaan dimulai dengan penglihatan dan aroma makanan yang merangsang sekresi enzim. Mencicipi dan mengunyah memungkinkan kejenuhan enzim saliva, amilase, yang memecah pati menjadi glukosa saat mengunyah kentang atau roti. PH turun ke kisaran asam serendah empat atau lima. Bagian atas perut yang disebut fundus terus menggunakan amilase dan enzim lainnya untuk gangguan pencernaan. Isi perut kemudian dilewatkan melalui katup pilorus ke dalam usus kecil dimana dicampur dengan cairan pankreas. Jus ini kaya akan enzim seperti protease (protein), amilase (pati) dan lipase (lemak, digester). Mereka terus mencerna dan menyiapkan makanan untuk asimilasi. Sifat alkali dari sekresi pankreas membantu menetralkan asam lambung (yang membantu pencernaan), dan melindungi usus halus. Enzim Enzim Enzim dari Penyakit Enzim memiliki efek yang besar pada seluruh fungsi kekebalan tubuh. Sel darah putih mengandung enzim pencernaan seperti alkaline phosphatase, lipase, protease, amylase dan peptidase, yang merupakan bagian dari jus pankreas, dan hanya sebagian dari banyak enzim yang meningkatkan fungsi kekebalan tubuh. Pancreatin mengandung enzim amilase, enzim lipase, dan tripsin pankreas. Enzim pankreas yang berguna ini membantu dalam pemecahan pati, lemak, dan protein. Enzim sel darah putih ini berfungsi untuk menghancurkan protein bakteri dan virus (yang dapat menyebabkan penyakit) dan juga bertindak pada makanan yang tidak dicerna dengan benar. Telah ditunjukkan bahwa konsentrasi sel darah putih di perut dan usus meningkat dengan pencernaan karena enzim sel darah putih dibutuhkan untuk membantu pemecahan dan asimilasi makanan. Diet yang kaya akan makanan mentah, dan menggunakan ramuan tumbuhan sebagai makanan dan obat-obatan kaya akan enzim, yang merupakan makanan paling awal di dalam perut yang menghemat cadangan sel darah putih bodys. Inilah sebabnya mengapa nafsu makan menurun dan atau mual sering menyertai proses penyakit. Selain itu, mencerna makanan olahan atau olahan membutuhkan energi dan sel darah putih yang dibutuhkan di tempat lain untuk melawan proses penyakit. Kimia otak mematikan pusat kelaparan di otak sesuai kebutuhan sehingga sistem kekebalan tubuh bisa berada pada fungsi puncak untuk melawan proses penyakit. Terapi Enzim Gizi Enzim sangat bermanfaat dalam mengobati berbagai penyakit. Mereka diserap oleh tubuh sebagai molekul utuh dan didistribusikan ke tubuh melalui aliran darah sesuai kebutuhan yang mendukung kebutuhan tubuh terhadap proses penyakit. Bromelain. Ditemukan di nanas yang digunakan untuk mengurangi radang pada radang sendi, rematik dan cedera otot-skeletal. Hal ini terbukti lebih efektif daripada obat antiinflamasi nonsteroid biasa dan tidak memiliki efek samping beracun. Cara terbaik adalah menggunakan nanas segar dalam jumlah kecil atau diencerkan dalam air atau jus, karena kaleng atau botol telah dipanaskan dan kehilangan enzimnya. Cystic fibrosis adalah penyakit di mana pankreas tidak dapat mengeluarkan cukup enzim. Hal ini biasanya menyertai kelainan kelenjar lain yang mempengaruhi tiroid, adrenal, limpa dan kelenjar lainnya. Ini juga toxifies hati dan bisa berhubungan dengan masalah usus, gangguan tidur, ketidakseimbangan hormon estrogen dan kehilangan energi. Protease. Adalah enzim yang terbukti memperlambat metastasis dan berkontribusi pada penyusutan tumor sementara protease mengurangi rasa sakit pada kanker. Lipase Amilase. Bukti terbaru menunjukkan bahwa kadar lipase dan amilase yang kaya dalam darah menyebabkan penurunan plak arteriosklerotik, sehingga terapi enzim bermanfaat melawan penyakit arteri koroner dan aterosklerosis. Penuaan dan Enzim. Enzim telah terbukti memberi lebih banyak energi kepada orang tua, rasa sehat, asimilasi nutrisi yang lebih baik, dan ketahanan terhadap penyakit. Penuaan mengurangi kemampuan untuk menghasilkan enzim dan mengasimilasi nutrisi, sehingga memperlambat kemampuan kita untuk sembuh. Enzim kekurangan. Kekurangan enzim sering dikaitkan dengan penyakit gastrointestinal, gangguan pencernaan, gas periodik dan kembung. Makanan yang nampaknya tetap berada di perut berjam-jam atau berhari-hari bisa jadi pertanda penyakit. Evaluasi oleh dokter Anda diperlukan untuk menentukan penyebabnya. Terapi enzim herbal bisa jadi obatnya. Suplementasi Enzim Penggunaan enzim sebagai suplemen dengan makanan telah populer selama beberapa waktu. Kami mengkonsumsi makanan olahan dan olahan seperti makanan cepat saji yang tidak lengkap gizi. Hal ini menambah beban pankreas dan sistem kekebalan tubuh untuk menggantikan enzim yang hilang, merampas tubuh produksi energi, cadangan enzim dan fungsinya. Suplemen enzim dengan makanan adalah tindakan pencegahan yang sangat baik. Formula pencernaan umum yang baik, yang juga membantu tubuh menyesuaikan diri dengan berat badan yang benar dan bermanfaat untuk menurunkan berat badan, harus mengandung HCI betain (meningkatkan keasaman lambung), pancreatin dan pancrelipase (penggambu pati, lemak, protein), papain (protein pengganggu ), Pepsin (protein digestik), diatase (tepung terigu), dan Ox Bile (digests fat). Banyak ramuan adalah enzim aktivator yang mempotensiasi dan meningkatkan tindakan enzimatik sambil mengurangi peradangan, mengeluarkan gas dan meningkatkan pencernaan: Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum) adalah salah satu ramuan ini. Fenugreek membersihkan ke bagian bronkhial dari catarrh dan iritasi lainnya dan bahan-bahan asing. Hal ini berguna untuk semua kondisi lendir dan untuk kemacetan paru-paru yang menenangkan kondisi perut dan usus yang meradang dan karena bisul efektif sebagai tapal pada luka, area yang meradang, bisul dan karbis. Dapat digunakan sebagai pelumas untuk usus, sebagai alat pencernaan, untuk demam, diabetes, asam urat, dan sebagai afrodisiak dan peremajaan. Dosis Fenugreek yang disarankan adalah dua atau lebih kapsul 500 mg, 10-15 menit sebelum makan. Jika dibutuhkan lebih banyak, Anda harus berkonsultasi dengan dokter kesehatan Anda. Penting agar dokter Anda mengevaluasi masalah pencernaan yang terus-menerus. Sri Lanka: Ekspedisi ke Pulau Permata Pada bulan Februari 2014, para penulis menjelajahi seluruh industri batu permata dan perhiasan dari Sri Lanka ke seluruh pasar. Tim tersebut mengunjungi berbagai pertambangan, pemotongan, perdagangan, manufaktur perhiasan, dan pusat ritel yang mewakili masing-masing sektor dan menyaksikan perpaduan dinamis antara praktik tradisional dan semakin modern. Berabad-abad tradisi sebagai pertambangan batu permata, perdagangan, dan sumber pemotongan sekarang bertemu dengan teknologi, keahlian, dan strategi pasar global saat ini. Sri Lanka adalah salah satu meccas gemology. Sedikit sumber, terutama di kalangan daerah yang aktif, bisa menyamai sejarahnya yang kaya sebagai produsen gemuk dan pusat perdagangan. Saat Sri Lanka mengambil tempat di industri permata dan perhiasan todayrsquos, ahli permata dapat mengamati kombinasi metode tradisional dan teknologi modern serta strategi bisnis baru untuk pasar yang sangat kompetitif. Apa yang tampak sebagai praktik primitif seringkali sangat efisien dan sesuai dengan tugasnya. Sementara sebagian besar perusahaan pertambangan adalah operasi kecil dengan menggunakan perkakas tangan sederhana, ini memungkinkan dilakukannya penambangan terus menerus, mempekerjakan angkatan kerja yang besar, dan kurang merusak lingkungan (gambar 1). Pemotongan adalah sektor lain di mana teknik tradisional masih berlaku, memberikan orientasi awal kristal kasar yang sangat baik untuk warna wajah dan berat maksimum. Pada saat yang sama, rekrutmen terampil di Sri Lanka mencapai standar pasar internasional mengenai proporsi, simetri, dan kecerahan (gambar 2). Pemotongan presisi yang presisi untuk toleransi ketat pada peralatan lapidary modern diterapkan pada barang-barang yang dikalibrasi yang memenuhi persyaratan ketat, termasuk industri jam tangan. Gambar 1. Saat Sri Lanka mengembangkan industri pertambangan batu berwarna, praktik tradisional masih terbukti efektif. Foto oleh Andrew Lucas. Sementara toko-toko kecil mengandalkan teknik pembuatan perhiasan seperti penyolderan tangan, pabrik modern menggunakan lilin dan casting yang hilang sekaligus mematikan. Perdagangan Gem telah berevolusi, sebagian karena peraturan impor dan ekspor yang lebih ramah perdagangan, membuat pembeli Sri Lanka lebih kompetitif secara global. Industri ritel terus menemukan pasar domestik yang besar untuk perhiasan emas tradisional 22K sambil memperluas untuk memenuhi selera beragam orang muda Sri Lanka dan wisatawan. Gambar 2. Lapidaries Sri Lanka menggabungkan teknik tradisional, pemotongan presisi modern, dan rekam ulang yang sangat terampil. Pekerja ini memiliki pengalaman bertahun-tahun dalam memotong dan mengklasifikasi korundum dan chrysoberyl. Foto oleh Andrew Lucas. Sri Lanka adalah sebuah pulau besar di Samudra Hindia, tak jauh dari ujung selatan India. Ukurannya 65.610 kilometer persegi (40.768 mil persegi), dengan 1.340 kilometer (832 mil) garis pantai. Di barat daya, di mana sebagian besar penambangan batu permata terjadi, musim hujan berlangsung dari bulan Juni sampai Oktober. Sri Lanka terletak di jalur perdagangan utama di Samudera Hindia, sebuah keuntungan yang membantu menjadikannya sebagai salah satu sumber permata dunia yang paling penting. Selain batu permata, Sri Lanka memiliki sumber daya alam batu kapur, grafit, pasir mineral, fosfat, tanah liat, dan pembangkit listrik tenaga air. Negara ini juga dikenal dengan teh, rempah-rempah, karet, dan tekstilnya. Dari total angkatan kerja, 42,4 dipekerjakan di sektor jasa, 31,8 di bidang pertanian, dan 25,8 di industri, yang mencakup pertambangan dan manufaktur (CIA World Fact Book, 2014). Industri pariwisata diharapkan dapat melihat pertumbuhan yang kuat, walaupun infrastruktur yang ada mungkin berjuang untuk mengakomodasi masuknya pengunjung yang besar ke tempat-tempat wisata seperti reruntuhan Sigiriya, situs Warisan Dunia UNESCO (gambar 3). Gambar 3. Sigiriya, sebuah batu besar yang berdiri lebih dari 200 meter, diubah menjadi benteng kerajaan pada masa pemerintahan Raja Kashyapa (477495 M), dengan istana, taman, kolam renang, dan lukisan dinding. Ini adalah daya tarik wisata utama di Sri Lanka. Foto oleh Andrew Lucas. Ekonomi Sri Lankarsquos telah mengalami pertumbuhan yang kuat sejak 2009, yang menandai berakhirnya perang sipil 26 tahun yang telah lama melanda pembangunan ekonomi. Populasi negarawan hampir 22 juta mencakup beragam etnis dan agama yang tercermin dalam gaya perhiasan yang diproduksi dan dijual di dalam negeri. Populasi adalah 73,8 orang Sinhala, 7,2 Sri Lanka Moor, 4,6 Tamil India, dan 3,9 Tamil Sri Lanka (dengan 10 tidak ditentukan). Umat Buddha menyumbang 69,1 dari populasi, Muslim 7.6, umat Hindu 7.1, dan orang Kristen 6.2 (CIA World Fact Book, 2014). Sementara umat Islam dan Hindu mewakili minoritas yang berbeda, mereka memiliki tradisi perhiasan yang kaya, dan para penulis menyaksikan pentingnya daya beli mereka di industri ritel. SEJARAH PERDAGANGAN PERDAGANGAN Gemstone digunakan di Sri Lanka yang dimulai setidaknya 2.000 tahun. Pulau berlapis permata itu disebut dalam bahasa Sanskerta sebagai Ratna Dweepa, yang berarti ldquoIsland dari Jewelsrdquo (Hughes, 2014). Pedagang Arab awal menyebutnya Serendib, yang merupakan asal mula kata ldquoserendipity. rdquo Dikenal sampai tahun 1972 sebagai Ceylon, ia memiliki sejarah yang kaya sebagai sumber batu permata yang penting secara ekonomi, terutama safir (gambar 4) dan chrysoberyl catrsquos-eye. Gambar 4. Sementara Sri Lanka menghasilkan berbagai batu permata yang berharga, safir adalah yang paling penting secara komersial. Foto oleh Robert Weldon. Atas permintaan Bill Larson. James Emerson Tennent, seorang administrator British Ceylon dari tahun 1846 sampai 1850, mencatat bahwa Mahavamsa (The Great Chronicle of Ceylon) menyebutkan sebuah takhta bertali permata yang dimiliki oleh raja Naga pada tahun 543 SM, ketika laporan awal pulau itu ditulis ( Hughes, 1997). Ahli fisika Romawi Pliny the Elder menulis bahwa duta besar dari Taprobane, seperti diketahui Sri Lanka pada saat itu, membual dari batu permatanya yang bagus pada masa pemerintahan Kaisar Claudius dari tahun 41 sampai 54 M (Hughes, 1997). Astronom Yunani Ptolemy merujuk pada pulaursquos beryl, safir, dan emas pada abad kedua Masehi (Hughes, 1997). Marco Polo melakukan perjalanan ke sana pada tahun 1293 dan mencatat banyaknya permata, termasuk ruby, safir, topaz, amethyst, dan garnet (Ariyaratna, 2013). Penjelajah Arab terkenal Ibn Battuta, berkunjung pada abad ke-14, menulis tentang berbagai batu mulia yang dia lihat (Ariyaratna, 2013). Antara tahun 500 dan 1500 M, selama pemerintahan raja-raja Sinhala kuno dan abad pertengahan, pertambangan, kepemilikan, dan perdagangan batu mulia dikendalikan oleh raja. Pedagang Arab dan Persia membeli banyak batu permata yang bagus. Selama periode perdagangan kolonisasi Eropa (1505ndash1656), Belanda (1656ndash1796), dan perdagangan mdashgem Inggris (1796ndash1948) berkembang melampaui keluarga kerajaan, karena orang Eropa hanya tertarik pada perdagangan dan keuntungan (Mahroof, 1997). Pedagang Eropa membawa lebih banyak barang ini ke Barat dan melanjutkan reputasi islandrsquos sebagai sumber batu permata dan keahlian perdagangan. Selama abad ke-20, Sri Lankarsquos berdiri sebagai pusat perdagangan permata utama berkurang. Hal ini disebabkan oleh banyak faktor: munculnya sumber lain, kegagalan untuk menyesuaikan dan menguasai teknologi seperti perlakuan panas dan pemotongan modern, dan peraturan pemerintah yang menghambat pertumbuhan pesat yang dinikmati Thailand dan negara-negara lain. Dalam dua dekade terakhir, Sri Lanka telah mengatasi kemunduran tersebut dan sekarang memiliki industri permata dan perhiasan yang dinamis dan berkembang pesat. Gambar 5. The 423 ct Logan sapphire adalah salah satu dari banyak batu terkenal dari Sri Lanka. Foto oleh Chip Clark milik Institusi Smithsonian. Sri Lanka terkenal dengan karburator dan korundum bintang yang besar dan luar biasa. Batu-batu penting yang dilaporkan berasal dari Sri Lanka termasuk (Ariyaratna, 2013): Giant Giant dari Timur 466 ct, diduga ditambang dari daerah Ratnapura pada tahun 1907 safir biru Logan 373 ct (gambar 5) dan ruban bintang Rosser Reeves , Keduanya ditempatkan di Museum Sejarah Alam Nasional Smithsonian Institutionrsquos, 400 ct Blue Belle of Asia, yang ditemukan di sawah di distrik Ratnapura pada tahun 1926, dan digambarkan memiliki warna biru ldquocornflowerrdquo yang sangat diinginkan. Bintang 363 ct Dari Lanka, yang dimiliki oleh Otoritas Gem dan Perhiasan Nasional dengan karavan biru dari Sri Lanka 850 ct, ditemukan di Ratnapura pada bulan Juni 1998 bintang biru keabu-abuan 563 di India, yang sebenarnya ditemukan di Sri Lanka dan disumbangkan ke Museum Amerika Sejarah Alam pada tahun 1900 oleh JP Morgan safir 12 ct biru di cincin pertunangan Diana, Putri Wales, yang sekarang dipakai oleh Duchess of Cambridge, Kate Middleton THE EXPEDITION Tujuan dari penelitian ini w Untuk mendokumentasikan seluruh industri batu permata berwarna Sri Lanka dari tambang ke pasar. Sementara banyak artikel sebelumnya berfokus pada geologi dan pertambangan, kami memutuskan untuk mencakup keseluruhan spektrum, termasuk pertambangan permata, impor dan ekspor, pemotongan, perawatan, pembuatan perhiasan, dan ritel. Kami ingin mengandalkan pengamatan kami sendiri untuk semua sektor. Kami mencari komunikasi langsung dengan para pemimpin industri dan anggota perdagangan. Melalui perjalanan yang ekstensif dan banyak kunjungan ke berbagai operasi dan bisnis, kami mengumpulkan keseluruhan gambar. Ratusan jam rekaman video dan wawancara dan lebih dari 7.000 foto mendokumentasikan semua aspek industri di Sri Lanka. Perhentian pertama kami ada di kantor Sapphire Capital Group, di mana kami melihat dealer Sri Lanka melayani sebagai konsultan ahli untuk pembeli asing. Selama satu hari penuh, kami melihat pembeli dari paket pembelian Selandia Baru setelah paket safir dan batu permata lainnya dari dealer yang kontaknya telah diaturnya (gambar 6). Saat ia memilih safirnya, pembeli asing tersebut akan berkonsultasi dengan orang-orang Sri Lanka tentang bagaimana batu-batu itu akan dikenang. Di sana kami juga berhasil menangkap kriket udang safir dan catrsquos-eye yang sangat terampil. Gambar 6. Pembeli asing sering mengandalkan dealer lokal yang terpercaya untuk membawa dealer lain untuk memamerkan barang mereka. Kontak lokal menyarankan klien asing mereka untuk membeli keputusan dan rekam ulang. Foto oleh Andrew Lucas. Selama beberapa hari berikutnya, kami melakukan kunjungan ke pedagang grosir, pengecer, dan fasilitas pemotongan di Kolombo. Pada Precision Lapidaries, kami melihat sekilas industri pemotongan batu permata Sri Lanka modern, yang menekankan ketepatan dan kualitas. Perjalanan pertama kami di luar Kolombo adalah ke pasar akhir pekan di Beruwala, yang sangat sibuk (gambar 7). Kami bisa melihat seni jalanan di Sri Lanka, bersamaan dengan aktivitas perdagangan di kantor. Kami juga mewawancarai pemotong tradisional dan spesialis perlakuan panas safir. Gambar 7. Pemandangan jalanan di Beruwala penuh dengan aktivitas perdagangan. Foto oleh Andrew Lucas. Perhentian kami berikutnya adalah pasar batu permata yang terkenal di dekat Ratnapura, dimana perdagangan di jalanan bahkan lebih berat daripada di Beruwala. Kami diizinkan untuk mengunjungi berbagai kantor dan fasilitas pemotongan dan perawatan tradisional. Setelah menghabiskan beberapa jam di pasar Ratnapura, kami menjelajahi operasi penambangan di daerah tersebut. Di Balangoda kami melihat tiga operasi penambangan mekanik dan mewawancarai beberapa penambang. Kami juga bisa menyaksikan operasi penambangan sungai. Pada titik ini dalam perjalanan kita, kita telah mengamati tiga jenis utama pemulihan permata di Sri Lanka: (1) penambangan tambang, termasuk lubang sempit sederhana dengan galeri dan operasi open-cast kecil, keduanya bekerja dengan tangan (2) pertambangan mekanik di Lubang terbuka, dilengkapi backhoe atau bulldozer untuk penggalian dan pintu air untuk mencuci dan (3) penambangan sungai tradisional. Di Elahera, tempat lain yang terkenal di dalam rencana perjalanan kami, kami mengamati operasi mekanis dan penambangan pit tradisional. Kembali ke Kolombo, kami memiliki tiga hari untuk mengeksplorasi fasilitas pemotongan, pedagang grosir dan pengecer lainnya, produsen perhiasan modern dan tradisional, dan pusat permata dan perhiasan Sea Street yang terkenal. DEPOSITO GEM Klasifikasi deposit permata Sri Lankarsquos dirangkum dalam gambar 8. Sebagian besar deposit permata bersifat sedimen, meskipun ada beberapa deposit utama yang berhubungan dengan batuan metamorf dan magmatik. Metamorfosis kontak andor regional disukai pembentukan korundum dan spinel dengan menghilangkan silika dan air, mengubah silikat aluminium dan magnesium menjadi oksida. Pegmatites adalah sumber magmatik permata Sri Lanka yang paling penting, menjadi tuan rumah beryl, turmalin, korundum, dan batu bulan. Pegmatite yang paling terkenal adalah deposit moonstone di Meetiyagoda, di selatan Sri Lanka (Dissanayake dan Chandrajith, 2003). Mendis dkk. (1993) mencatat bahwa banyak simpanan didistribusikan sepanjang fitur struktural seperti kesalahan, lipatan, dan zona geser. Meskipun struktur ini dapat mempengaruhi distribusi endapan permata, namun tetap tidak jelas apakah itu terkait secara genetis. Gambar 8. Kategori deposit utama di Sri Lanka dan area pertambangan yang sesuai. Dari Dissanayake dan Chandrajith (2003). Kotak A: Sejarah Bumi yang Terkait Pulau Sri Lanka telah diberkati dengan beberapa deposit permata terkaya di planet ini. Metamorfosis yang dihasilkan oleh rangkaian peristiwa pembangunan gunung menghasilkan kekayaan permata yang kita lihat sekarang. Sebelum Pangea yang terkenal, ada beberapa supercontinents dalam sejarah awal Earthrsquos. Siklus perakitan dan perpisahan dari supercontinents ini adalah mesin yang membentuk sebagian besar deposit permata dunia (gambar A-1), dan beberapa kejadian ini terkait erat dengan pembentukan permata di Sri Lanka. Hampir sepersepuluh dari Sri Lanka diliputi oleh batu metamorf bermutu tinggi pada zaman Prakambrium. Penuaan Neoshydymium dan rubidium-strontium (lihat Milisenda et al 1988 Kroumlner dan Williams, 1993) menunjukkan usia antara 1.000 dan 3.000 juta tahun (Ma). Eksterior Rodinia, pendahulu Pangea, berkumpul antara tahun 1300 dan 900 Ma (Li et al 2008), jadi protolit batuan metamorf bermutu tinggi ini pastilah telah diwarisi dari siklus supercontinent sebelumnya. McMenamin dan McMenamin (1990) menganggap Rodinia sebagai urutan teratas dari semua benua berikutnya. Lebih dari 75 daratan planetrsquos saat itu telah berkerumun untuk membentuk Rodinia, namun ukuran raksasa tidak berarti stabilitas bagi benua super. Karena isolasi termal yang disebabkan oleh daratan raksasa, pecahnya Rodinia terjadi pada sekitar 750 Ma di sepanjang pinggiran barat Laurentia. Rifting antara Amazonia dan marinir tenggara Laurentia dimulai pada waktu yang hampir bersamaan (Li et al 2008). Sementara Rodinia putus, masing-masing benua Gondwanaland mulai bergabung bersama. Gondwanaland dirakit antara tahun 950 dan 550 Ma (Kroumlner, 1991). Distribusi usia zirkon Detrital menunjukkan bahwa orogeni Pan-Afrika skala global mencapai puncaknya antara 800 dan 600 Ma (Rino et al 2008). Orogeni ini membentuk salah satu rantai gunung terpanjang dalam sejarah Earthrsquos: sabuk Mozambik yang membentang dari Mozambik modern sampai Etiopia dan Sudan dan juga mencakup sebagian besar Madagaskar, ujung selatan India, Sri Lanka, dan pantai timur Antartika. Sabuk ini, sebuah zona dorong dan lipat yang menandai persimpangan antara Gondwanaland Timur dan Barat, juga merupakan sabuk mineral. Sri Lanka modern menduduki posisi sentral di sabuk ini. Geokronologi timah-arang menunjukkan bahwa zirkon dari batuan metamorf bermutu tinggi Sri Lankarsquos mengalami penurunan Pb yang signifikan pada 550 Ma, dan pertumbuhan baru zirkon, monazite, rutil, dan garnet terjadi antara 539 dan 608 Ma (Kroumlner dan Williams, 1993). Ini adalah tanggal metamorfosis dekat-puncak yang menciptakan batu permata di negara ini. Gambar A-1. Supernatural Rodinia terbentuk 900 juta tahun yang lalu dan mulai hancur sekitar 150 juta tahun kemudian. Beberapa fragmennya dipasang kembali untuk membentuk Gondwanaland, yang kemudian menjadi bagian dari superbenua Pangaea. Amerika Selatan, Afrika, Madagaskar, India, Sri Lanka, Antartika, dan Australia pernah terhubung di Gondwanaland. Diadaptasi dari Li et al. (2008) dan Dissanayake dan Chandrajith (1999). Hampir semua sumber Sri Lankarsquos bersifat aluvial, mengandung konsentrasi kerikil permata yang disebut illam (gambar 9). Selain safir, berbagai permata lainnya ditemukan dari penyakit jiwa, termasuk spinel, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, dan moonstone. Sangat sedikit simpanan utama yang penting telah ditemukan. Satu ditemukan secara tidak sengaja saat pembangunan jalan pada tahun 2012 di dekat kota Kataragama (Dharmaratne et al 2012 Pardieu et al 2012). Penemuan safir sangat berharga, diperkirakan mencapai US100 juta atau lebih tinggi, sehingga pemerintah melelang sejumlah lahan untuk pertambangan. Meskipun petak-petak kecil ini dijual dengan harga tertinggi yang pernah tercatat untuk lisensi pertambangan permata di Sri Lanka, namun tidak ada deposit berharga komersial yang ditemukan. Namun studi geologi penuh tentang deposit belum dilakukan, jadi potensi sebenarnya dari Kataragama masih belum diketahui (V. Pardieu, pers. Comm. 2014). Sekitar 10 sampai 15 simpanan utama safir telah ditemukan selama 20 tahun terakhir, secara tidak sengaja (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. Comm. 2014). Gambar 9. Kebanyakan batu permata Sri Lanka berasal dari kerikil permata yang dikenal dengan nama illam. Kerikil dicuci dengan harapan bisa mengungkapkan harta karun di dalam bahan yang lebih berat yang tertinggal di tangan penambang. Foto oleh Andrew Lucas. Kebanyakan pertambangan aluvial dilakukan di daerah dengan sejarah produksi permata. Ada banyak daerah seperti di bagian tengah ke selatan pulau ini. Karena sifat endapan tambang aluvial, kerikil permata yang terkonsentrasi mungkin tertinggal. Kerikil aluvial Ratnapura dan Elahera mungkin berisi sampel dari beberapa jenis endapan primer (Groat dan Giuliani, 2014). Kristal yang ditemukan di atau dekat batuan sumber asli bisa berbentuk indah, seperti di Kataragama (gambar 10). Kristal yang telah diangkut jarak jauh, seperti spesimen yang ditemukan di Ratnapura, biasanya kerikil bulat (Zwaan, 1986). Gambar 10. Kristal safir ini berasal dari deposit primer di Kataragama. Foto oleh Vincent Pardieu. Prospek di Sri Lanka jarang ilmiah. Saat mengevaluasi suatu daerah, metode tradisional adalah menggerakkan batang baja yang panjang ke tanah (gambar 11). Para prospektor memeriksa ujung batang untuk goresan dan tanda dari kontak dengan kuarsa dan korundum, dan untuk kerikil yang menempel padanya. Beberapa bahkan bisa membedakan suara yang dibuatnya. Metode ini juga bisa membantu dalam menentukan kedalaman, komposisi, ukuran, karakter, dan warna illam (Ariyaratna, 2013). Gambar 11. Metode tradisional pencarian di Sri Lanka melibatkan pengemudian batang baja ke dalam tanah dan memeriksanya untuk goresan dan bekas dari kuarsa dan korundum. Foto milik Janka Hemachandra. Dengan lebih dari 103 DAS alami yang meliputi 90 daratan negara (Dissanayake dan Chandrajith, 2003), ada banyak tempat untuk batu permata terkonsentrasi di kerikil. Deposito korundum dan permata lainnya diketahui terjadi di selatan dua pertiga pulau itu (Hughes, 1997). Kami mengunjungi daerah pertambangan di sekitar Ratnapura, Balangoda, dan Elahera. Meskipun ini hanyalah persentase kecil dari deposit permata Sri Lankarsquos, mereka memberikan gambaran umum yang representatif mengenai operasi penambangan di seluruh negeri. Semua ini adalah deposit kerikil sekunder yang tidak dapat menemukan deposit utama yang ditambang. Kotak B: Geologi Lokal Konsisten dengan nomenklatur yang disarankan oleh Cooray (1994), ruang bawah tanah Prakambrium Sri Lanka dapat dibagi menjadi empat unit: Kompleks Highland (HC), Kompleks Vijayan (VC), Kompleks Wanni (WC) Dan Kompleks Kadugannawa (KC). Sebagian besar deposit permata berada di HC, yang membentang timur laut ke barat daya (gambar B-1). Ditemukan di dalam VC adalah klippes (fragmen terisolasi seperti di pulau dari lapisan batu overthrust) dari HC. Salah satu dari beberapa tambang safir Sri Lankarsquos yang tidak sengaja ditemukan di Kataragama klippe (Pannipitiye et al 2012). Kompleks Highland mengandung batuan metamorf bermutu tinggi seperti gatal-gatal pelit, metaquartzite, marmer, dan cornignne gneiss (Cooray, 1994). Batu di HC memiliki kadar metamorfosis tertinggi (fasies granulite), dan kompleksnya lebih muda dari VC ke timur dan selatan. Kontak antara kedua kompleks ini adalah kesalahan dorong yang mencelupkan ke barat dan barat laut, dengan HC di atas. Kesalahan dorong ini juga merupakan batas tektonik utama yang ditafsirkan sebagai zona jahitan yang menandai persimpangan terakhir antara Gondwanaland Barat dan Timur sekitar 550 Ma (Kroumlner, 1991). VC terdiri dari migmatites, gneises granit, granitoida, dan metasediments yang tersebar (Cooray, 1994). Berbaring di sebelah barat HC, WC berisi migmatites, gneisses, metasediments, dan granitoids. Sifat dan posisi kontak yang tepat antara WC dan HC masih belum didefinisikan dengan baik (Cooray, 1994). KC yang lebih kecil berada di dalam cekungan synformal memanjang di sekitar Kandy. Hornblende dan biotite-hornblende gneiss adalah batuan utama di KC (Cooray, 1994). Selain unit basement Precambria ini, pantai utara dan barat laut pulau ini ditutupi oleh batu kapur Miosen, tempat tidur merah Kuarter dan sedimen klastik, dan sedimen baru-baru ini (Dissanayake, 1986). Gambar B-1. Peta geologi yang disederhanakan di Sri Lanka menunjukkan unit dasar dan deposit batu permata utama. Diadaptasi dari Sajeev dan Osanai (2004) dan Dissanayake dan Chandrajith (1999). Sementara industri pertambangan modern mempromosikan pemulihan dengan cara tercepat, Sri Lanka menganut filosofi yang berlawanan. Pertambangan dilakukan terutama dengan tenaga kerja manual. National Gem and Jewelshylery Authority (NGJA), badan pengatur yang mengeluarkan izin pertambangan, sangat ketat dalam memenuhi persyaratan untuk pertambangan mekanis. Strategi ini membuat sekitar 60.000 sampai 70.000 penambang permata terus dipekerjakan (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. Comm. 2014). Pendahulu NGJA adalah Corporation Gem Negara, yang mendirikan kantor regional dan mengambil alih kendali atas izin dan pedoman pertambangan pada tahun 1972. Peraturannya untuk industri permata mendukung operasi penambangan legal (Dharmaratne, 2002). Sri Lanka mengeluarkan 6.565 lisensi pertambangan permata pada tahun 2013. Izin pertambangan harus diperbaharui setiap tahun, dan jumlahnya terus meningkat sejak 2009, ketika NGJA memberikan sekitar 4.000 di antaranya. Banyak dari lisensi ini untuk area kecil, setengah hektar sampai dua hektar. Masing-masing dapat menampung dua sampai empat lubang tradisional, dengan sekitar 7 sampai 10 penambang di lubang pit lebih dalam dapat menampung 10 sampai 15 penambang. Sistem ini telah mempertahankan jumlah tambang aktif yang cukup konstan selama bertahun-tahun. Setelah area pertambangan selesai, poros atau lubang terbuka harus diisi sesuai peraturan yang ditegakkan oleh NGJA. Tindakan lingkungan ini berkaitan dengan kerikil yang longgar yang mengkontaminasi air di sekitarnya, kerusakan pada bentang alam, dan lubang yang dipenuhi air yang stagnan, tempat berkembang biak nyamuk pembawa malaria. Pit Mining. Di Sri Lanka, penambangan tambang adalah metode penambangan tradisional dan sejauh ini yang paling luas. More than 6,000 of the current licenses are for pit mines, compared to approximately 100 licenses for river mining and 10 for mechanized mining (P. G.R. Dharmashyratne, pers. comm. 2014). We witnessed numerous pit mining operations, all excellent demonstrations of the processes described to us by industry leaders. Miners are actually shareholders in such operations, receiving a small stipend and a percentage of the rough stone sales. As shareholders, they need little or no supervision. Several other people are involved in such a venture, including the landowner, the holder of the mining rights, and the person who supplies the pump to dewater the pit they typically receive 20, 10, and 10 of the sales, respectively. The rest of the revenue is split among the financial stakeholders and the miners (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. comm. 2014). To give an idea of scale, a standard pit mine in Sri Lanka consists of a two by four meter opening at the surface (figure 12). If the pits are deep and located in harder ground, the miners may choose smaller dimensions. The vertical shafts generally range from 5 to 25 meters deep. The pits are created by first digging the opening to about a meter deep. The next step is making a wooden frame of timbers slightly taller than the depth of the pit. The miners place the first set of four timbers into the pit wall, which is grooved for a secure fit. Vertical struts of timber are wedged between the crossbeams. Branches and foliage help shore up the pit walls from water erosion, and timber braces are used in the center (figure 13). This process continues down the depth of the pit about every meter, until the miners reach the gem-bearing gravel. At this point they create horizontal crawl tunnels about 1.5 meters in height, called galleries, from the pit into the gem-bearing gravel. The length of these tunnels varies depending on the extent of the illam, but often reaches 5 to 10 meters. The galleries extending from the pit are interconnected with other tunnels. This leaves some areas of illam that cannot be mined because they are needed for structural support. Buckets of gravel are either passed to the surface or hauled up by rope on a manual winch. Some pits have a wood and branch rooftop to shield the miners from the intense sunlight. A pit with an opening wider than the traditional two by four meters is more like a very small open pit (also called an open cast), but it is still worked by manual labor. We witnessed some of these operations in Ratnapura and Elahera. Usually there were a half dozen people working in each pit. At least one miner at the bottom would shovel the illam into a woven bamboo basket held by another miner. That person would toss the basket to another miner, slightly higher up in the pit, who simultaneously tossed back an empty basket, like a perfectly harmonized juggling act. This process continued through several miners until the illam-filled basket reached the top, where it was dumped into a pile for washing. The accumulated mound of gem-bearing gravel could be covered with leafy branches, similar to those used to shore up the pit walls, to prevent rainwater from washing it away. Pit mines with a standard two by four meter shaft opening follow a similar process for removing the illam, but often using a manually operated winch for hauling buckets to the surface (figure 14). In both examples, the illam is either washed in a nearby reservoir by simple panning or removed to a more sophisticated washing facility featuring a sluice. The sluices are often modified from Australian designs, as they are in other parts of the world. The washed gem-bearing gravel is called dullam (Zwaan, 1982), which is also the term for the smaller, lower-quality gems picked from washing baskets and usually given to miners to sell. While rain caused the erosion that created the amazingly rich gem gravels of Sri Lanka, it also poses a significant obstacle to the mining process. Pits quickly fill up with rainwater that must be removed. This is often done by a pump, which is much faster than old-fashioned methods. Substantial rains can also cause erosion damage to the pits. We saw this at several locations, having arrived after fairly heavy rains. With around 6,500 mining licenses issued annually and around four or five pits in each mine, at any given time there could be 20,000ndash25,000 active pits in Sri Lanka. With extensive mining over the past 50 years, more than a million pits may have been dug altogether. Compared to many African mining countries, very few abandoned pits are left unfilled. This is because the NGJA collects a cash deposit upon issuing a mining license. If the mine owner fails to rehabilitate the land, the NGJA keeps the deposit for that purpose (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. comm. 2014). Mechanized Mining. Only a limited number of mechanized mining licenses are issued in Sri Lanka each year. They may be granted if the concentration of gemstones is not high enough to make pit mining viable, or if there is a serious threat of illicit mining. To avoid large rushes of illicit miners to a rich discovery, the government may block access to the area or issue a mechanized mining license so the deposit can be mined quickly and legally (P. G.R. Dharmashyratne, pers. comm. 2014). Mechanized mining speeds the removal of overburden soil and the recovery of gem-bearing gravel for washing. Most mechanized mines in Sri Lanka are relatively small open-pit operations. Overburden soil sometimes contains dispersed gemstones, and it too may be washed. At mechanized operations, the illam is washed by sluices to keep up with the production (figure 15). Mechanized operations in Sri Lanka must also pay a deposit for the rehabilitation of the land. Figure 15. Mechanized mining in Sri Lanka usually includes washing the illam. Trucks move the gravel, which backhoes load into a sluice for washing. Photo by Andrew Lucas. While mechanized mining operations may use bulldozers, backhoes, excavators, front-loaders, trucks, and sluices for washing, they are still small-scale compared to those in other countries. The mechanized mining licenses are often issued by auction from the NGJA in blocks measuring 30 square meters. We witnessed three mechanized mining operations near Balangoda. The largest was an open-pit operation about 60 meters deep on a property covering 50 acres (figure 16). It had four excavators, two washing sluices, and a few trucks. The excavators at the bottom of the pit loaded the trucks with gem-bearing gravel. The trucks climbed the roads on the pit benches back to the top to the washing operations. The four excavators worked in tandem to move the gravel up the pit until the highest one loaded the trucks. Figure 16. This open-pit sapphire mine near Balangoda, a large one by Sri Lankan standards, had partially filled with water from rains the week before. Photo by Andrew Lucas. With global weather changes, Sri Lankan miners are finding that the rainy seasons are no longer as predictable. This interferes with mining operations, whether traditional or mechanized. At the time of our trip, rainwater had filled many of the pits and needed to be pumped out before mining could resume. The pit at the largest mechanized operation we visited took more than a week to dewater. River Mining. Although nowhere near as prevalent, river mining is also conducted in Sri Lanka. These areas may contain alluvial gem deposits where the river bends or otherwise slows down. The miners choose shallow waters and build a dam made of wood or rock where the stream slows, allowing the water to escape from one side of the dam but trapping the gravels. Using metal blades attached to long wooden poles called mammoties . the miners dredge the gravel until they reach the illam (figure 17). Long pointed steel rods are used to loosen the illam, which is dragged up and washed by the rushing water. Once any visible gemstones are removed, the remaining gravel may be further washed. We observed a river mining operation in Balangoda next to a tea plantation. There were four miners using mammoties to remove the illam, two miners washing gravels with baskets, and another removing larger rocks and building dams. Another miner would wade into the water to remove gravels and larger rocks. We did not see the use of mechanized or powered dredgers at any river mines. Gemstone cutting is another area where the traditional meets the modern in Sri Lanka. Centuries of experience in cutting corundum and other colored gemstones continue alongside new technologies and business models. The time-honored art of reading rough and orienting stones is integrated with the global marketrsquos growing demand for exact calibration, well-balanced proportions, and high-quality polish. Our team observed several examples of traditional and modern cutting, as well as some of the highest-precision cutting of colored gemstones we have ever witnessed. Numerous interviews with members of the Sri Lankan cutting industry revealed the interwoven nuances of blending the past, present, and future. There is still a relevant place for old-style cutters and their expertise, even as innovative companies are thriving. While Sri Lanka has seen some growth in diamond cutting, with 20 companies active in 2013mdashincluding De Beers sightholder Rosy Bluemdashmost of the activity is focused on colored stones, particularly sapphire. The number of licensed cutting businesses has increased only slightly over the last five years, from 174 to 192, though today there are larger, more modern lapidary companies. Traditional Cutting. While the West and Japan sometimes view traditional cutting in Sri Lanka as outdated and not up to modern global proportion and symmetry standards, one can still appreciate the craft. These cutters use a bow to power a vertical lap, often holding the stone by hand or with a handheld dop as they cut and polish (figure 18). They have a high degree of skill in orienting rough gemstones to achieve the best face-up color while retaining weight. Decades and even centuries of knowledge have been passed down on orienting sapphires and other gemstones such as catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl. Of all the cutting steps for colored stones, orienting the rough to display the best color through the table requires the highest skill, especially with valuable rough where weight retention is foremost. For high-quality sapphires, this method is still preferred by Sri Lanka cutters, especially for preforming. Figure 18. While their equipment appears primitive, Sri Lankan cuttersrsquo knowledge of orienting rough sapphire transcends technology and generations. Careful orientation to optimize color is a critical skill. Photo by Andrew Lucas. While blue sapphire often displays its best color through the c-axis, a skilled cutter can make slight angle adjustments to the table and still achieve a fine color with higher weight yield. If this is not done at the initial orientation, multiple recuts may be needed to get the right orientation of the table. With the orientation properly set, the recut produces a beautiful stone with minimum weight loss. For example, a 22 ct blue sapphire that is properly oriented for face-up color can be recut to close windows and optimize proportions and symmetry, while keeping the stone above 20 ct. If the orientation or proportions of a blue sapphire cause a reduction of color, the stonersquos value suffers accordingly. This is especially true for light - to medium-tone blue sapphires, where even a 5 to 10 reduction of color diminishes the value more than a 5 to 10 weight reduction. Precision Cutting and Free Size Cutting. For Sri Lanka to become a leader in the colored stone trade, its cutting industry must meet the specific needs of the global market, where customers from different countries require a wide variety of cutting specifications and tolerances. In Sri Lanka, many fine-quality sapphires over one carat are cut as free sizes. The cutting is performed to minimize windowing and yield pleasing proportions and symmetry rather than exact calibrated measurements. This allows weight retention on more valuable material while creating a beautiful stone with high brilliance. This is essentially a cost decision. It is less expensive to adjust mountings from the standard 12 times 10, 10 times 8, and 9 times 7 mm sizes than to lose weight from valuable gem material. With larger fine-quality material, sizing considerations always give way to beauty and weight retention. Even customers of calibrated sapphires have a range of tolerances. Some can accept a tolerance range as wide as 0.5 mm. For instance, sapphires cut to 7 times 5 mm sizes can vary up to 7.5 times 5.5 mm for some clients. Others have stricter tolerances, such as 0.2 mm, based on their jewelry manufacturing and mounting requirements. Some cutting companies offer tolerances of 0.1 mm or less (figure 19). Figure 19. The girdle outline of this sapphire is being cut to precise calibrated measurements for jewelry manufacture. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Precision Lapidaries. In Colombo, our team visited Precision Lapidaries and interviewed managing director Faiq Rehan. We also spoke with Saman K. Amarasena, vice chairman of the lapidary committee of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association and owner of Swiss Cut Lapidary. On both occasions, we gained insights on the state of precision cutting in Sri Lanka. Despite being a fifth-generation member of the gem industry, Rehan started Precision Lapidaries in 1990 with a business model that was unconventional for Sri Lanka. Rather than cutting only large stones and selling them individually, he specialized in bulk quantities of calibrated cuts, applying the precision standards he had learned years earlier while cutting diamonds. The new company soon received large orders for calibrated sapphires in 2 to 4 mm princess cuts from Japanese clients who constantly pushed for tighter precision and higher quality. In expanding his business, Rehan preferred to hire young people directly out of school and train them to cut sapphire to his exacting standards. This philosophy was unusual in Sri Lanka, where cutters often come from a long line of cutters with deeply ingrained procedures and standards. As he entered the American market, Rehan found buyers wanting much larger quantities of stones cut at a much faster rate. They did not share the Japanese appreciation for precision measurements and higher quality of symmetry and polish. Rehan did not want to abandon his standards of precision and quality, however. He found that serving a high-quality niche market, rather than having a large inventory full of product similar to what was already available, allowed for constant inventory turnover. Rehan believes that the high-end and commercial markets in the United States and elsewhere are moving toward stricter precision and cut quality, and he has expanded his business to fill this demand. Many others are doing the same, and this is changing how the world views the Sri Lankan cutting industry. China now requires very bright stones with no windows or dark areas, as well as excellent proportions and symmetry. Chinese demand for its massive jewelry manufacturing industry has helped fuel the growth of precision cutting in Sri Lanka. The actual production model at Precision Lapidaries is also very different from many other cutting operations. Each cutter assumes full responsibility for a given stone instead of handing it off at different stages as in an assembly line. Some large-scale diamond cutting factories in India have also switched to this model to achieve higher quality standards through personal accountability (D. Pay, pers. comm. 2014). Using this model, Rehan treats his cutters more like partners, basing their compensation on both production and quality. Each cutter has an individual glass-walled workstation to eliminate distractions. A cutterrsquos typical output, using an already preformed and calibrated 8 times 6 mm oval as a benchmark, is 140 to 180 stones per eight-hour workday. The stones are tracked throughout the process and entered into a database. There are several quality control checks at the calibration stage (which requires tolerances of 0.1 mm or less), the faceting stages, and the finished product stage. The companyrsquos production manager noted that if any quality factors are not up to standards for calibration tolerance, facet symmetry, proportion variations, or polish, the stone is returned to the cutter with a repair order. Another nontraditional practice at Precision Lapidaries is its use of detailed inventory and grading reports, the kind favored by large diamond cutting companies. While there was initial resistance, over time customers became comfortable with the information contained in these reports. Each one itemizes a parcel by shape, weight, cutting style, color, and other quality factors. Established customers can review the reports to make buying decisions and place orders, even through the Internet. Swiss Cut Lapidary, which supplies the watch industry with colored gemstones, also stakes its reputation on precision and accuracy. The luxury watch industry requires very small stones cut with a high degree of precision, including very tight proportion tolerances for crown height, pavilion depth, and crown angle. Swiss Cut Lapidary cuts round faceted stones below 1 mm, and even down to 0.35 mm for ladiesrsquo watches. At these sub-millimeter sizes, each faceted stone has eight crown facets and eight pavilion facets. By achieving zero tolerances to the hundredth of a millimeter, the company is able to meet the stringent demands of watch manufacturers. In finished rounds below one millimeter, the size difference between the starting rough and the faceted stone is very slightmdashfor Amarasena, only 0.20 mm. In other words, for a round faceted stone of 0.50 mm, the rough can be as small as 0.70 mm. To achieve this level of precision, Mr. Amarasena first learned traditional cutting by hand before working with mechanical lapidary equipment for Japanese clients. To further his skills, he traveled to Germany and Spain, where he cut a variety of colored gemstones using modern machines and techniques. Upon returning to Sri Lanka with high-precision Swiss-made equipment, Amarasena purchased mine-cut sapphires and recut them to global market standards. In Europe he had seen many Sri Lankan sapphires being recut, so he knew the exact requirements. Figure 20. At Swiss Cut Lapidary, Saman Amarasena conducts quality control for the fitting of gemstones in a watch bezel. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Swiss Cut Lapidary. Amarasena also decided to shift his focus from recutting to unique designer cuts. At the annual Basel jewelry show, he noticed watches with small faceted gemstones set in the bezels. Back in Sri Lanka, he looked for small rough to use for cutting these stones. Rough chips were practically given to him because they were abundant and there was no real market for them. Amarasena faceted tiny precision stones from these chips in a wide variety of colors and tones, providing many options to watchmakers (figure 20). Although the rough costs slightly more today, its cost is minimal compared to the finished cut product. Micro-pave settings are another growing market for these precision-cut gemstones. Recutting. In Sri Lanka, some sapphires are initially cut with what has been termed a mine cut or native cut (figure 21). While the proportions and symmetry are not up to modern gem industry standards, the cutters execute a high degree of skill in orienting the rough primarily for weight retention. These stones are considered advanced preforms that can be recut to market-friendly proportions and symmetry without substantial weight loss. The ideal color orientation has already been applied, so many Sri Lankan dealers simply have them recut to close windows and remove excess depth from the pavilions while making the shapes less bulky and more appealing. Figure 21. This 6.76 ct mine cut sapphire has been oriented by a Sri Lankan cutter primarily for weight retention. It can be recut to meet global standards of proportion and symmetry. Photo by Robert Weldon. The same holds true for gemstones sold decades ago that are reentering the global market. Special care must be taken with stones that have deep pavilions. While the market prefers pavilions that are not overly deep, any reduction of color will lower the value considerably (figure 22). If the recut involves more substantial weight loss, then the calculations become more complicated, and every case is unique. If a 2.08 ct stone is to be recut to 1.80 ct, the buyer must decide if too much of the premium would be lost below the 2 ct size. Figure 22. The recutting of sapphire (left) requires great skill to close windows and improve symmetry, all while minimizing weight loss and retaining depth of color. Cats-eye chrysoberyl and star sapphire (right) are recut for better positioning of the effect. Photo by Andrew Lucas. These mine cuts from Sri Lanka were once exported to Thailand, the United States, and other countries to be recut to modern global standards. Eventually, Sri Lankan dealers realized they were missing out on a significant value-added service for their customers. Since the 1990s, they have provided that service, selling stones directly that meet the highest international cutting standards. Besides facet-grade sapphire, our team witnessed the recutting of catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl and star sapphire. The original mine cuts strongly favored weight retention over symmetry and placement of the catrsquos-eye or the star. Recutting was needed to reposition these effects to the center of the cabochon and add symmetry. The recutting also made for a straighter catrsquos-eye that moved more smoothly across the stone. While this involved some weight loss, it was often limited to a few points, and the final product would have significantly higher value on the global market. Japan was once the main market for catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, but that distinction now belongs to China. Much of Sri Lankarsquos gemstone trading industry is centered on sapphire. Traditionally this was limited to goods of domestic origin, but today sapphires from around the world are brought to Sri Lanka for enhancement and cutting. Most import and export businesses are family-owned and go back several generations. For example, the fifth-generation Sapphire Capital Group has more than 100 family members involved in the industry. In 2013 there were 4,429 gem dealing companies in Sri Lanka, only a slight increase since 2009. Yet the quantity and value of exports has risen sharply over those five years (table 1). Table 1 (PDF) During the 1970s and 1980s, Thailand emerged as the undisputed leader in corundum trading. Its facilities began mastering the art of heat treatment, purchasing corundum rough from around the world. This included Sri Lankan geuda sapphire, which is translucent and has a desaturated, often grayish color. As the Thais discovered, heating this material gives it a transparent, highly saturated blue color. Sri Lankan buyers considered the geuda rough virtually worthless and were slow to capitalize on the use of heat treatment to turn it into a very valuable gemstone (Kuriyan, 1994). Unlike their Thai counterparts, Sri Lankan buyers dealt primarily in domestically mined rough. Part of this had to do with the idea of preserving a national brand identity, but what really hindered them was a cumbersome import policy for rough. This changed in the mid-1990s when the government lifted import duties that had inhibited the purchase of corundum rough from other sources. Sri Lankan buyers have, in turn, established a strong presence in the marketplace, especially at global gem sources such as Madagascar and Mozambique. While the countryrsquos industry still capitalizes on the brand identity of domestic gems, the trade is much more open to gems mined elsewhere. The improvements in the Sri Lankan industry are timed perfectly to take advantage of the increased global demand for sapphire, particularly the Chinese colored stone market (ldquoChina becoming Sri Lankarsquos top gem buyer. rdquo 2011). As an example of the rise in sapphire prices over the last few decades, untreated top-quality blue sapphires sold in Sri Lanka can reach US15,000 to 20,000 per carat. Those are dealer to dealer prices. In 1969 similar stones would have sold for US400 to 1,000 per caratmdashapproximately 2,600 to 6,500 per carat, adjusted for inflation (N. Sammoon, pers. comm. 2014). Local Mining Area and Street Markets. The first major street market we toured was in Beruwala, 60 km south of Colombo. The gem trading area of Beruwala is also known as China Fort, named for the Chinese merchants who arrived about 300 years ago. Most of the dealing occurs within a single block, where there is constant activity of dealers on the street. This market is open on Saturday from 6:00 a. m. to 2:30 p. m. or later if there is strong activity. During our visit, the market was also busy on Sunday. At any given time, over 5,000 dealers may be active on the street and in the hundred or so officesmdashthe major dealers in Colombo have offices in Beruwalamdashoffering rough sapphire from the mines of Sri Lanka, as well as Africa and other global sources. We witnessed a flurry of trading activity. Sri Lankan dealers often traded rough among themselves on the street (figure 23). Once word got out of a foreign buyer in a dealerrsquos office, other dealers would come by with their stones. There were also traditional Sri Lankan cutters and heat treatment facilities in Beruwala. Just off the street was Emteem Gem Laboratory, where dealers could bring in stones for testing and identification. The demand for lab services has grown tremendously with the influx of foreign customers, especially Chinese buyers. One of the most sought-after services is the detection of heat treatment in corundum. This is also one of the most challenging identifications, especially if relatively low temperatures are used in the treatment. For corundum that has been subjected to very high temperatures, clients were advised to submit the stone to a foreign laboratory with more sophisticated instrumentation that could conclusively identify beryllium diffusion. About half of the stones submitted to the Emteem lab are believed to be of African origin (M. T.M. Haris, pers. comm. 2014). We also stopped at the gem market in Ratnapura on the way to several nearby gem-mining operations. This market is active daily from 6:00 a. m. to 4:00 p. m. Like Beruwala, this market was bustling on the streets and in dealer offices (figure 24). While the streets were crowded with dealers, the market was spread out over several streets, as opposed to the single block in Beruwala. Ratnapura had numerous small traditional cutting operations. Like Beruwala, transactions were happening all over the street, particularly between Sri Lankan dealers. The market at Ratnapura is centered in one of the countryrsquos major gem sources and offered plentiful rough from the nearby mines and other areas (figure 25). There was also an abundance of cut stones for sale. Some foreign buyers on the street dealt directly with local miners, but most transactions were between Sri Lankan miners and dealers. We saw the same dealers attending different markets. Consulting for Foreign Buyers. One growing trend is for foreign buyers to work with Sri Lankan dealers to develop long-term supply chain management. The foreign dealers can arrange to have a variety of goods brought to their local contactrsquos office, allowing them to see much more inventory during a trip. The local dealer puts the word out to suppliers for the type of material required. Dealers bring their goods to the office for inspection by the foreign buyer. Prospective sellers are screened, making the transaction process more organized and less of a selling frenzy. Once the price is negotiated, the rest of the logisticsmdashpayment for the stones, export requirements, and shipping if requiredmdashare handled by the local contact, who receives a set commission from the seller. Besides convenience, this arrangement offers several other benefits. The local contact can give expert advice on recutting, including the difference in carat weight and price per carat. They can also recommend an acceptable counteroffer and give an expert opinion on the nature of the material (figure 26). This system minimizes risk, as the local contact stands behind the goods they have brought to the foreign buyer. For extra assurance, they can have the stones checked by a gemologist before the buyer leaves the country. Colombo is a hub for such services, and this same expertise and assurance is sought by foreign buyers in Sri Lankan mining areas and street markets. Figure 26. Local dealers with decades of experience provide invaluable consultation to foreign buyers on recutting stones and purchasing rough material. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Imports and Exports. Sri Lankarsquos import policies have been greatly simplified, making the process much easier and more cost-effective. For a US200 charge, rough, preformed, and cut stones can be imported for cutting, recutting, and heat treatment. The flat rate charge is assessed regardless of quantity and value. As of 2013, foreign customers buying gemstones parcels valued at over US200,000 are expedited through customs so they can board their flight with minimum processing. The export fee for these parcels is a flat rate of 1,500. Parcels valued below US200,000 require about two hours to be processed by the NGJA for export (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Buying on the Secondary Market. Because Sri Lanka has been supplying sapphire, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, and other gemstones to the global market for so long, many dealers have decades of experience and an international clientele. Having maintained relationships with their customers, they know where to find important stones that were sold years before. They can contact their clients and act as brokers to resell the gemstones, making a substantial profit for both parties. As global wealth shifts toward China, previous customers in Japan and the West have become sources of fine-quality gemstones for this secondary market. These stones may be recut to more contemporary proportion and symmetry standards, and sapphires that were heated 30 years ago can be retreated using modern technology. A couple of decades ago, Sri Lankan dealers would attend exhibitions and trade shows in Japan and the United States to sell gemstones. Now some of them go to buy gemstones for recutting, heat treatment, and resale in the Chinese market. HEAT TREATMENT Sri Lanka is highly regarded for its heat treatment expertise (figure 27). Those who perform heat treatment, called burners, are known for their ability to get the finest blue color out of a sapphire. They typically use a two-part process, a combination of gas and electric furnaces. The second burn, in the electric furnace, refines the blue color, often achieving a much more valuable color. Some other countries that treat sapphire send their heated material to Sri Lanka for the second burn (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Figure 27. Rough sold in mine-area markets can be dramatically improved through heat treatment. It takes considerable experience to predict the change in value. Photo by Andrew Lucas. We visited one burner in Beruwala who heated blue sapphire from Sri Lanka and Madagascar in a gas furnace. The stones were heated to approximately 1600degC to 1700degC for four hours in an aluminum oxide crucible with a reducing atmosphere. For yellow Sri Lankan sapphires, the burner used an oxidizing atmosphere at approximately 1600degC for six hours. No compounds or fluxes were used in the crucible. The gas furnace is typically a Lakmini furnace, which has an alumina chamber covered in insulation and a stainless steel exterior, a water cooling system, two gas flow meters, two thermocouples and temperature indicators (digital or analog), a view hole, and an inlet top feed for an additional gas such as nitrogen or hydrogen (M. Hussain, pers. comm. 2014). An atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide is reported to work best for geuda sapphires, turning them transparent and blue (Kuriyan, 1994). Clients typically bring mixed parcels of sapphires in different colors. The burner will divide the lot by color and type of sapphire and the desired result, and then advise the client of the different heating processes and what can be expected after treatment. Most stones brought to the burner are in the preform stage, so most of the inclusions that could cause damage are already cut away. Treatment in the gas furnace is almost always followed by heating in an electric oven to further improve the color (M. Hussain, pers. comm. 2014). Expertise in heat treatment has also made Sri Lankans more competitive in buying rough from Africa and other sources. Some African blue sapphire, especially from Madagascar, is similar to Sri Lankan geuda material (F. Rehan, pers. comm. 2014). In value terms, the effect of modern heat treatment is tremendous. One Sri Lankan burner can reportedly take light blue sapphire with silk inclusions causing a foggy appearance, valued at US300 per carat for a 10 ct stone, and heat it to a transparent fine blue color valued at US2,000 per carat. This burner asks for one-third the value of the heated stone rather than a flat fee (N. Sammoon, pers. comm. 2014). JEWELRY MANUFACTURING As with gemstone cutting, there are both traditional and modern methods for jewelry manufacture. Both approaches are used in Sri Lanka, though some metals and styles are more suited to modern manufacturing. Mass-production techniques give some companies a competitive advantage by lowering costs. Jewelry made in Sri Lanka is targeted to the domestic retail market and to Sri Lankans living abroad. Manufacturing for export and for the emerging tourist industry is expected to grow. Traditional 22K Gold Jewelry Manufacturing. The 22K gold jewelry manufactured in Sri Lanka is alloyed to have a slightly more reddish yellow color than similar goods from India, Singapore, Dubai, and Turkey. This is accomplished by using a slightly higher percentage of copper and a lower percentage of silver in the alloy. In countless small workshops in Colombo and other areas of Sri Lanka, 22K gold jewelry is manufactured using time-honored and modern methods. We witnessed many of these shops in Colombo and during an extensive tour of the Sujitha Jewellery workshop on the famous hub of Sea Street. While small by global standards, this was one of the larger facilities we observed. They worked primarily with 22K gold and created traditional styles. About a dozen jewelers were working in small rooms that made very efficient use of space. The jewelers sat on the floor as they fabricated by hand. Many of them were shirtless due to the heat. They bent and formed metal with pliers, filed, sawed, polished with flex shafts and traditional leather strips embedded with polishing compounds, and soldered. Most used jewelerrsquos torches, but one still preferred a blowpipe for soldering (figure 28). Equipment such as a hand-powered rolling mill and draw plate was used to make gold sheet and wire. Figure 28. This jeweler preferred the traditional blowpipe for soldering 22K gold jewelry. His ability to control the direction and intensity of the flame was remarkable. Photos by Andrew Lucas. Modern Jewelry Manufacturing. In contrast to these traditional shops are modern facilities where technology has been embraced by the Sri Lankan jewelry manufacturing industry. Large-capacity vacuum casters imported from Italy can handle numerous waxes for mass production of both 22K gold jewelry and more contemporary pieces in 18K gold, white gold, platinum, or even silver. Other technologies such as casting diamonds in place, laser welding (instead of soldering), stamping or die striking, machining, and CADCAMmdashthe methods used in manufacturing centers such as Italy, China, and Indiamdashhave been adopted by progressive Sri Lankan jewelry manufacturers (figure 29). Figure 29. CADCAM is used for all styles of Sri Lankan jewelry design, even traditional 22K gold jewelry. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. We visited the modern factory of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery in Colombo. The company manufactures jewelry primarily for its retail store and online business, which also serves overseas clients. The spacious facility handled all types of gold alloys, silver, and platinum, but a large part of the production consisted of 22K gold jewelry. While the factory incorporated methods such as lost-wax casting and die striking, there were also jewelers working on hand fabrication using traditional forming techniques, albeit at modern jewelerrsquos benches. Besides traditional 22K gold jewelry for the domestic market, modern jewelry manufacturing is also being adopted by colored stone cutting and trading companies who are moving into finished jewelry. Customers from the United States and other developed markets are increasingly purchasing Sri Lankan jewelry with mounted colored stones (S. Ramesh Khanth, N. Seenivasagam, and N. S. Vasu, pers. comms. 2014). Jewelry that can be designed and custom-made to specifications is also manufactured in Sri Lanka. One of Sri Lankarsquos leading retailers and jewelry exporters, Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery is also one of its most progressive manufacturers. Along with mass-market 22K gold jewelry, they manufacture a full range of styles, including gemstone, synthetic gemstone, white gold, and platinum jewelry (figure 30). To safeguard against cross-contamination, tools such as files, polishing wheels, and burs are dedicated solely to platinum manufacturing. Figure 30. While 22K gold jewelry represents the mainstream in Sri Lanka, contemporary jewelers also sell white metal and gem-set jewelry, such as the earrings and ring worn by this model. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. In 1990, Wellawatta Nithyakalyani invested in a vacuum casting machine from Italy. The few other casting operations in existence used centrifugal casting. This machine gave the company an advantage in capacity, speed, and cost of producing jewelry for its retail store. In terms of consistency, vacuum casting lowered the weight variation of pieces from about 10 with hand fabrication to less than 1. Today, the factory incorporates hand fabrication, wax carving, casting, stamping, and various settings such as prong, bead, paveacute, and channel. Wellawatta Nithyakalyanirsquos manufacturing methods are becoming more modernized and cost-effective. Even though hand fabrication costs remain relatively low in Sri Lanka, the competitive market and low margins for 22K jewelry have led to the widespread use of casting (figure 31) and stamping. Companies that manufacture and sell directly to retail customers have a distinct advantage, as they can eliminate distribution costs for this low-markup jewelry. Figure 31. These wax carvings are being fine-tuned to make master models from which tens of thousands of pieces can be reproduced. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. The company focuses its retail efforts on women and middle - to upper-class consumers in Colombo and its suburbs, where the countryrsquos strongest jewelry market exists. The precious metal weight of its jewelry ranges from one gram to over 100 grams in a single piece, catering to a broad span of income. Wellawatta Nithyakalyani also manufactures and retails jewelry set with diamonds, colored gemstones, cubic zirconia, and crystal glass. This includes white precious metals, 18K gold, and traditional 22K gold used for weddings and as financial assets. The 22K gold wedding necklaces generally range from US450 to 4,500. Between its manufacturing and retail operations, the company staffs about 115 employees, representing a cross-section of Sri Lankarsquos ethnic and religious groups. Its two full-time designers have degrees in architecture and are trained in jewelry design using CADCAM. Most of Wellawatta Nithyakalyanirsquos export business is for mass-produced lines of jewelry sold in high volume. These are shipped to retailers in Canada, UK, Switzerland, Australia, and Dubai, where they are usually purchased by Sri Lankans living abroad. These expatriates also buy jewelry, especially diamond and gemstone merchandise, when they return to Sri Lanka for holidays. In addition, the companyrsquos website offers an extensive line of jewelry directly to retail customers worldwide. Another company that encompasses the manufacturing-to-retail value chain can be found on Sea Street, home of Ravi Jewellers. The company, founded in the 1960s by Ravi Samaranayake as a small traditional 22K gold jewelry retailer, has operated continuously for almost 50 years. Today, the firm is involved in jewelry manufacturing, creating jewelry of all styles sold directly to retail customers (figure 32). Figure 32. Sri Lankan retailers needed a large inventory for their customers to choose from. Box after box of 22K gold and other types of jewelry would be brought out for customers. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Ravi Jewellers. With its modern manufacturing capability, Ravi Jewellers also sells wholesale to other retailers throughout Sri Lanka. This demonstrates another emerging trend where companies that cover the manufacturing-to-retail value chain sell wholesale to smaller domestic retailers. Their manufacturing division also allows them to provide an extensive custom design service to their retail clients and on the wholesale level to other retailers, a business model that creates a competitive advantage. In addition to being the Sri Lankan agent for Swarovski synthetic cubic zirconia, the company markets Italian alloys and serves as an official currency exchange to accommodate tourists. It has even ventured into selling gold bullion purchased in Dubai. For all its modernization and expansion of services, Ravi Jewellers remains a family business, typical of the Sri Lankan industry. JEWELRY RETAIL Sri Lanka has a thriving domestic retail jewelry industry. Its dynamics are different from those of Western jewelry markets and even elsewhere in Asia. Its retail industry is strongly influenced by jewelryrsquos role in Sri Lanka as an investment and hedge against economic uncertainty, the tradition of gold wedding jewelry, the preferences of religious groups, the tourist trade, the Western tendencies of younger consumers, and the lack of emphasis on gemstones in jewelry. Jewelry as a Financial Asset. The use of gold jewelry for financial security is a tradition among many Sri Lankans. As one European gem dealer noted, they are more practical than Western jewelry buyers, who purchase luxury branded products as status symbols that lose most of their value immediately. When there is ample income, Sri Lankans typically buy gold jewelry that can be converted to cash during difficult economic times. The pawn industry is a major component of the Sri Lankan economy, and most major banks issue loans with jewelry as collateral. The loans are based almost entirely on the commodity value of the gold, with heavier 22K pieces receiving the highest loan value. Some of the countryrsquos major banks have anywhere from 17 to 40 of their lending portfolios concentrated in gold jewelry as collateral (A. P. Jayarajah, pers. comm. 2014). Many lower - to middle-class Sri Lankans use pawn shops for 22K gold jewelry loans, receiving instant cash for 75 to 80 of the gold value. Most of these pieces are heavy, from about 80 to 160 grams. Clients generally redeem their items within six months to a year and pay a slight interest charge. Men tend to pawn jewelry more than women (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). During the height of the gold market, when prices soared to more than US1,700 an ounce, the lending industry became very competitive and pawn shops were offering around 90 of the gold value of jewelry. Many consumers did not redeem their jewelry at these loan values, and when the price of gold fell, the pawn shops lost substantial collateral value. Wedding Jewelry. For most jewelers in Sri Lanka, the wedding business is arguably the most important. Although jewelry trends inevitably change, gold is an essential component of a Sri Lankan wedding. Jewelry is given to the bride and the groom, as well as the bridal party. Around 80 of this wedding jewelry is for the bride, though jewelry purchases for the groom are on the rise (V. Rishanthan, pers. comms. 2014). Traditional 22K gold jewelry remains the wedding jewelry of choice, and it is still used as a dowry in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankans comprise many of the major religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Each religion has its own style of jewelry, especially for weddings, with differences both subtle and obvious (A. P. Jayarajah and V. Rishanthan, pers. comms. 2014). Hindus tend to wear larger, heavier jewelry of a more Indian style, and designs are often based on what is popular in India (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). In Hindu weddings, the bride is given substantial amounts of 22K gold jewelry, including a thick Thali necklace (often weighing between 80 and 250 grams) and longer chains, as well as bangle bracelets. The groom usually receives one simple ring. The bridesmaids and the groomrsquos mother and sisters also receive 22K gold jewelry, making Hindu weddings a major jewelry purchasing event in Sri Lanka. Buddhists use both rings and necklaces for weddings, often with more floral and classic Sinhalese designs. Sinhalese Buddhists tend to choose lighter, more delicate designs than Hindus for weddings. Brides are presented with a ring, necklace, bangle, and matching earrings in their wedding sets, and the groom receives a gold ring. Still, most Buddhist weddings do not involve as much gold jewelry as Hindu weddings. In addition to the Thali, Sri Lankarsquos Christian community uses rings for the bride and groom. Whereas Hindu Thali necklaces often incorporate a square shape with a symbol of Vishnu inside, Christian Thali designs feature the Bible or a heart shape with a dove. Muslims tend to buy larger and heavier bangle bracelets than the Hindus, Buddhists, or Christians. Sri Lankan retailers immediately know the ethnicity and religion of their customers by observing the jewelry they wear into the store. Of the more than 3,500 bangle bracelets in Wellawatta Nithyashykalyanirsquos product lines, around 95 of these are 22K gold. This is the bracelet of choice in the Muslim community, whose women display their bangles stacked on the arm. Muslim brides also receive a Thali and a large chain, matching earrings, and engagement necklace. Grooms often prefer a white metal for their ring. Expatriate and Tourist Trade. The strong tie between Sri Lankans and their jewelry is not confined to the island. Sri Lankans living abroad, many of whom left during the civil war, purchase traditional jewelry when returning to their native land. The month of August is especially busy for Sri Lankan retailers, as many expatriates living in Europe return for vacation (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). They will plan out and purchase all the jewelry gifts needed for the entire year, such as weddings, birthdays, and other occasions. Again, most of them choose traditional 22K gold jewelry based on ethnic or religious heritage. Since the end of the civil war in 2009, tourism has been growing. With over one million tourists in 2013 and an expected doubling of that figure in 2014, retailers noted a dramatic impact on sales. Many of these tourists are Sri Lankans living abroad, but retailers are seeing more European, Australian, American, and especially Chinese visitors. The countryrsquos jewelry industry is working to brand Ceylon sapphires, which are sold in boutiques of major hotels (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Retailers are reporting the positive effects of tourism on sapphire jewelry sales. Global awareness of Sri Lankan sapphires was also heightened in October 2010, when Great Britainrsquos Prince William gave Kate Middleton a Sri Lankan blue sapphire engagement ringmdashthe same ring worn by his mother, Diana, Princess of Wales. According to officials from the NGJA and the International Colored Gemstone Association (ICA), demand for Sri Lankan blue sapphires in engagement rings rose sharply in the West and in China. Sea Street. One of the most important areas for Colomborsquos jewelry trade is near the harbor on Sea Street. The Sea Street jewelry trade was started in the early 1900s by the Chettiar community, a Hindu caste originating in southern India. They are known as a mercantile class of businesspeople and bankers. The Chettiar merchants were involved in money lending, largely with jewelry as collateral. Over time, this led to the development of jewelry retail, wholesale, and manufacturing businesses on Sea Street. By the 1950s, the district had become the major jewelry hub of Sri Lanka, focusing on 22K gold. There are still Chettiar temples on Sea Street today, though much of the community has returned to India (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). While Sea Street remains the countryrsquos jewelry hub, the rest of the country has seen significant retail and wholesale growth since the end of the civil war. Sea Street often supplies these new retailers with wholesale jewelry and manufacturing, or with specialized services such as stone setting, laser welding, and plating. In return, small local manufacturers throughout Sri Lanka supply finished jewelry to Sea Street retailers (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). Figure 33. Sea Street is a concentrated center of retailers, pawn shops, and jewelry manufacturers. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Walking down the few blocks of Sea Street, you see hundreds of jewelry stores and pawn shops (figure 33). Closer examination reveals that some of the storefronts lead to complexes divided into 50 to 100 very small shops, some just 10 by 10 meters. Within these shops, jewelry is crafted using traditional methods. Much of the manufacturing on Sea Street consists of family businesses that continue from one generation to the next. Gemstone Jewelry Market. While Sri Lanka is known all over the world as an abundant supplier of sapphire and other colored gemstones, the local market for gemstone jewelry is surprisingly weak. Much of the domestic demand is for 22K gold jewelry without gemstones. Even more interesting is the Sri Lankan preference for synthetic cubic zirconia and crystal glass in jewelry. This is directly related to the custom of buying jewelry as much for financial security as for personal adornment. Sri Lankans can always go to a pawn shop or bank and receive a high percentage of the gold value in their jewelry as a loan. Once gemstones are added to the jewelry, it becomes more difficult to receive a loan value close to the cost of the piece. The gemstone value is not as liquid and cannot be assigned a market value for a loan. As a low-cost alternative to add color and sparkle to their jewelry, many Sri Lankans opt for cubic zirconia and crystal glass (figure 34). For instance, a 22K gold bracelet set with CZ might cost US500 at Wellawatta Nithyakalyani, compared to US5,000 for a comparable bracelet set with good-quality natural diamonds. Unlike consumers in the West or Japan and China, Sri Lankans see little reason to spend the difference. For mass-market 22K gold jewelry, most consumers only allow the addition of gemstones up to 25 above the price of the gold. After that, there is price resistance. Sri Lankans are often willing to spend more on gemstones in 18K gold jewelrymdashapproximately 40 above the gold valuemdashand even more for platinum jewelry. But this custom is slowly changing, and the market for natural colored gemstones and diamonds set in jewelry is growing, especially among upper-income and young consumers. Figure 34. Many retail stores offer gold jewelry with less-expensive Swarovski crystal and cubic zirconia to add color and sparkle. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Younger Consumers. V. Rishanthan, director of Ravi Jewellers, compared the buying preferences of his motherrsquos generation and his wifersquos generation. His motherrsquos generation, composed of women in their sixties, prefers large sets of 22K gold jewelry and substantial pieces weighing 40 to 80 grams. These impressive sets are reserved for special occasions such as weddings, birthdays, and visits to the temple. The rest of the time, such jewelry is kept in a safe or other secure location. This generation also views jewelry as a commodity that can be readily pawned for cash. Rishanthanrsquos wife, representing the younger generation of women in their twenties and thirties, prefers lighter jewelry, such as necklaces weighing around 8 to 10 grams. His wife may own ten lighter pendants while his mother may have only two much heavier pendants. Younger women are very aware of jewelryrsquos financial uses but want to wear it every day, in a variety of fashionable styles. Another trend among younger Sri Lankans is to resell their jewelry back to a store within six months to a year to trade it in for a new style. So while younger consumers may be buying lighter jewelry, they are buying more pieces and constantly exchanging them for new styles, creating more opportunities for the Sri Lankan retail industry. These younger consumers pay close attention to design trends and up-and-coming designers (V. Rishanthan, R. Samaranayake, J. Sasikumaran, and Y. P. Sivakumar, pers. comms. 2014). The younger generation is also far more open to other gold alloys such as 18K, and they are especially fond of white metals such as platinum, white gold, and silver. Still, the sentimental and investment aspects of 22K yellow gold jewelry are not lost on the new generation of Sri Lankan consumers. Younger men are buying more jewelry for themselves, and these still tend to be heavier pieces. With their preference for modern designs, younger consumers also buy more jewelry with diamonds (especially smaller ones) and colored gemstones, usually set in white metal. Blue sapphire is quite popular. Synthetic cubic zirconia or crystal glass can also be used to achieve the desired color. As with yellow gold jewelry, these white metal pieces tend to be lightweight. CONCLUSION Our expedition to Sri Lanka took us through all sectors of the colored gemstone and jewelry industry. While other reports have tended to focus on mining or treatment, very few have tackled the entire scope of the Sri Lankan industry. Over the course of two weeks, we witnessed mining operations, traditional and modern cutting, trading, treatment, and retail. The resulting documentation revealed a very vibrant industry across all sectors and allowed us to construct a complete picture. The changes over the last decade have been significant. Modernized cutting has allowed Sri Lanka to produce precision cuts of the highest caliber. Meanwhile, traditional cutting continues to incorporate centuries of experience orienting sapphire, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, and other colored stones for color and weight retention. Mining is still aggressively pursued but mostly by small-scale operations, helping to preserve the environment and gem resources so more Sri Lankans have more opportunities to strike it rich. A wealth of trade expertise gives Sri Lanka a competitive advantage as it looks to expand its share of the global gem market. Many foreign buyers consult with local dealers on purchasing decisions and the potential benefits of recutting and heat treatment. Rough stones imported from other global sources fuel the value-added industries of cutting and treatment. With decades of trading experience and a global client list, Sri Lankan dealers know where to find important stones for the growing secondary market, particularly in China. Meanwhile, trade organizations such as the National Gem and Jewellery Association and the National Gem and Jewellery Authority are working on a bilateral trade agreement that could eliminate import tariffs on colored gemstones entering China from Sri Lanka (R. Kamil, pers. comm. 2014). Jewelry manufacturing is another sector that incorporates both traditional and modern techniques. Most of the manufacturing is to satisfy consumer demand for 22K gold jewelry, as a wedding gift and as a financial asset, at home and in Sri Lankan communities around the world. Younger consumers are demanding contemporary styles, new metals and alloys, and a greater use of gemstones. A growing tourist industry is also influencing Sri Lankan jewelry manufacture. Figure 35. The Sri Lankan retail industry hopes to maintain the traditional market in 22K gold jewelry while developing new products to meet the tastes of future generations. Photo by Andrew Lucas. With rapid economic development since the end of the civil war in 2009, the Sri Lankan gem and jewelry industry could see dramatic growth, albeit at a much smaller scale than in neighboring India. Some of this growth is already happening in the diamond jewelry market, which has long been hindered by consumersrsquo limited purchasing power and the tradition of pawning jewelry for the commodity value of the precious metals. It remains to be seen whether Sri Lankan demand for contemporary jewelry featuring diamonds, colored stones, and alternative precious metals will match the popularity of 22K gold jewelry (figure 35). The islandrsquos gem and jewelry industry displays remarkable vitality and ambition for growth. With the ICA Congress coming to Colombo in 2015, the influx of foreign buyers to the annual Facets Sri Lanka show, and a stronger presence at trade shows in China, the Sri Lankan industry is striving for greater international recognition. About the Authors Mr. Lucas is manager of field gemology, Dr. Hsu is technical editor of Gems Gemology . and Mr. Padua is video producer, at GIA in Carlsbad, California. Mr. Sammoon is a member of the board of directors of the National Gem and Jewellery Authority, chairman of the Sapphire Capital Group, chairman of foreign promotions and deputy chairman of Facets Sri Lanka of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association. Mr. Jayarajah is CEO of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery and chairman of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the following members of the Sri Lankan gemstone and jewelry industry for all their support and sharing their experience and knowledge: Shamil Sammoon (Sapphire Capital Group) Naji Sammoon (Sapphire Cutters Ltd.) Faiq Rehan (Precision Lapidaries) Sujitha Traditional Jewellery Ravi Samaranayake and V. Rishanthan (Ravi Jewellers) Y. P. Sivakumar and J. Sasikumaran (Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery) Prof. P. G.R. Dharmaratne (former chairman, National Gem and Jewellery Authority) Ajith Siriwardena (deputy superintendent of Customs) Saman K. Amarasena (Swiss Cut Lapidary) A. H.M. Imtizam (Gem Paradise) H. C.J. Bandara N. Seenivasagam and N. S. Vasu (Devi Jewellers) S. Ramesh Khanth (Devi Gold Cast) M. S.M Fazli (Saleems Limited) Juzar Adamaly and Roshen Weereratne (Facets Sri Lanka) Aly Farook Ruzwan Kamil (MSM Kamil Exporter of Fine Gemstones) W. D. Nandasari (Sapphire Gems) Nabeel Salie (FJC The Fine Jewellery Company) Altaf Iqbal (Regal Gems) M. Hussain M. T.M Haris (Emteem Gem Laboratory) and M. L.M. Sanoon (San Gems). The National Gem and Jewellery Authority of Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association, and the International Colored Gemstone Association provided access to and understanding of the countrys industry. References Ariyaratna D. H. (2013) Gems of Sri Lanka . 7th ed. AampB Graphics Nawinna, Maharagama, Sri Lanka. China becoming Sri Lankarsquos top gem buyer from emerging markets (2011) Xinhua News Agency, news. xinhuanetenglish2010 china2011-0915c131141158.htm date accessed: Oct. 10, 2014. CIA World Fact Book (2014) South Asia: Sri Lanka, ww w. cia. govlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosce. html. Cooray P. G. (1994) The Precambrian of Sri Lanka: A historical review. Precambrian Research . Vol. 66, No. 1ndash4, pp. 3ndash18, dx. doi. org10.10160301-9268(94)90041-8. Dharmaratne P. G.R. (2002) Gem mining and sustainable environmental management in Sri Lanka . Journal of Gemmology . Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 153ndash161. Dharmaratne P. G.R. Ranjith Premasiri H. M. Dillimuni D. (2012) Sapphires from Thammannawa, Kataragama area, Sri Lanka. GampG . Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 98ndash107, dx. doi. org10.5741 GEMS.48.2.98. Dissanayake C. B. (1986 ) Preliminary Assessment of the Gem Potential of Sri Lanka . Economic Development Board (EDB), Colombo, Sri Lanka, p. 160. Dissanayake C. B. Chandrajith R. (2003) Gem-Bearing Stream Sediments of Sri Lanka Geology and Geochemistry . Gem and Jewellery Research and Training Institute and the National Gem and Jewellery Authority, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Groat L. A. Giuliani G. (2014) Geology of Gem Deposits . Second Edition, Short Course Series Volume 44, Chapter 2: The Geology and Genesis of Corundum Deposits, Mineralogical Association of Canada, p. 95. Grunow A. Hanson R. Wilson T. (1996) Were aspects of Pan-African deformation linked to Iapetus opening Geology . Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1063ndash1066, dx. doi. org10.11300091-7613(1996)0241063:WAOPAD2.3.CO2. Hughes R. W. (1997) Ruby amp Sapphire . RWH Publishing, Boulder, CO. Hughes R. W. (2014) Ruby amp Sapphire: A Collectorrsquos Guide . Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, Bangkok. Kroumlner A. (1991) African linkage of Precambrian Sri Lanka. Geologische Rundschau . Vol. 80, No. 2, pp. 429ndash440, dx. doi. org10.1007BF01829375. Kroumlner A. Williams I. S. (1993) Age of metamorphism in the high-grade rocks of Sri Lanka. Journal of Geology . Vol. 101, No. 4, pp. 513ndash521, dx. doi. org10.1086648243. Kuriyan V. (1994) Sri Lankarsquos growing heat treatment expertise. ICA Gazette . April, pp. 8ndash9. Li Z. X. Bogdanova S. V. Collins A. S. Davidson A. De Waele B. Ernst R. E. Fitzsimons I. C.W. Fuck R. A. Gladkochub D. P., Jacobs J. Karlstrom K. E. Lu S. Natapov L. M. Peace V., Pisarevsky S. A. Thrane K. Vernikovsky V. (2008) Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: A synthesis. Precambrian Research . Vol. 160, No. 1ndash2, pp. 179ndash210, dx. doi. org10.1016j. precamres.2007.04.021. McMenamin M. A.S. McMenamin D. L.S. (1990) The Emergence of Animals: The Cambrian Breakthrough . Columbia University Press, New York. Mahroof M. M.M. (1997) Corundum in Sri Lanka: Its historical and social role. Part 1. The Canadian Gemmologist . Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 111ndash116. Mendis D. P.J. Rupasinghe M. S. Dissanayake C. B. (1993) Application of structural geology in the exploration for residual gem deposits of Sri Lanka. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Finland . Vol. 65, pp. 31ndash40. Milisenda C. C. Liew T. C. Hofmann A. W. Kroumlner A. (1988) Isotopic mapping of age provinces in Precambrian high-grade terranes: Sri Lanka. Journal of Geology . Vol. 96, No. 5, pp. 608ndash615, dx. doi. org10.1086629256. Pardieu V. (2012) Sapphire rush near Kataragama, Sri Lanka. GIA News from Research . giathaipdfKataragama. pdf. Rino S. Kon T. Sato W. Maruyama S. Santosh M. Zhao D. (2008). The Grenvillian and Pan-African orogens: Worldrsquos largest orogenies through geologic time, and their implications on the origin of superplume. Gondwana Research . Vol. 14, No. 1ndash2, pp. 51ndash72, dx. doi. org10.1016j. gr.2008.01.001. Sajeev K. Osanai Y. (2004) Ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism (1150degC, 12thinspkbar) and multistage evolution of Mg-, Al-rich granulites from the Central Highland Complex, Sri Lanka. Journal of Petrology . Vol. 45, No. 9, pp. 1821ndash1844, dx. doi. org10.1093petrologyegh035. Zwaan P. C. (1982) Sri Lanka: The gem island. GampG . Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 62ndash71, dx. doi. org10.5741GEMS.18.2.62. Zwaan P. C. (1986) Gem minerals from the Embilipitiya and Kataragama areas in Sri Lanka. The Australian Gemmologist . Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 35ndash40.
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